The earliest inhabitants were the hunter-gatherer San, or Bushmen, whose rock art indicates their presence in the region 25,000 years ago. From around AD 1200 Tswana tribes, each with a chief or king, and organised, stratified structures, started arriving and by the early 20th century were in control of most of the territory.

Expansion by the Zulu in the 1820s and Boers from the Transvaal in the 1870s and '80s caused the Batswana to ask Britain for assistance, and the Protectorate of Bechuanaland was established in 1885. When the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910, the northern part of the territory remained under direct administration and became Botswana, while the southern section became part of the Cape Colony and is now part of South Africa's Northwest Province.

Proclamations in 1934 regularised tribal rule and powers, with the most powerful later codified as the “eight main tribes” in the constitution. On 30 September 1966, Botswana became independent, with its capital at the new town of Gaborone.

The country has made significant social and economic progress since independence. The robust economy has long been dominated by diamond mining, which accounts for 70 percent of annual export earnings, and has allowed it to develop into a middle-income country.

The government has actively been trying to diversify to reduce dependency on a single industry, with varying degrees of success. Tourism is growing due to good conservation practices, extensive nature reserves and some of the most remote and unspoiled wilderness in the region.

However, Botswana has the second highest rate of HIV/AIDS infection in the world - over 24 percent - but also one of Africa's most progressive and comprehensive programmes for dealing with the disease. Nonetheless, thousands of children have been orphaned and the response to the epidemic is now the country's most pressing problem.

Peace and security

Botswana has been peaceful and secure since independence. The Botswana Defence Force (BDF) has participated in the UN peacekeeping missions in Somalia, and Darfur, Sudan, while the Botswana Police Service has participated in peacekeeping efforts in West Africa.

The country is a member of the UN Organisation (UN), the British Commonwealth, the African Union (AU), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC), whose secretariat it hosts. It is a signatory to major international human and civil rights conventions.

The government has expressed concern over the security implications of a growing influx of illegal migrants fleeing the economic and political crisis in Zimbabwe, Botswana's neighbour to the northeast.

Refugees

Since the late 1970s, the Dukwi refugee camp in the north of the country has housed South Africans, Zimbabweans, Angolans and Namibians. Of late, it has hosted people fleeing simmering conflicts in the Great Lakes and Horn of Africa regions. According to the UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), the camp currently has an estimated 3,000 refugees, mostly from Namibia, Angola and Somalia.

In 1997 the Botswana government began relocating roughly 2,500 San from the Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve, in the Kalahari Desert, a reserve about the size of Togo or Denmark created in the last days of British colonial rule before independence in 1966, in which the San were guaranteed continued occupation of land their forefathers had lived on for thousands of years.

The San were moved to New Xade and Kaudwane villages, after the government said it intended setting aside the protected area for wildlife and tourism development.

 Democracy and governance

Botswana is one of Africa's most stable countries, and has one of the continent's longest continuous multi-party democracy systems. Although a single party - the BDP - has won all eight elections since independence, most observers agree they have been free and fair.

Despite being beset by factionalism, opposition parties - the Botswana National Front (BNF), the Botswana Congress Party (BCP), the Botswana Alliance Movement (BAM) and the lesser-known Botswana People's Party (BPP) - have all participated in past elections and look set to do so in 2009.

Although rapid urbanisation has been eating away at the BDP's traditional rural support base, the ruling party is expected to continue its reign under the current vice-president, former army commander Seretse Ian Khama, who is being groomed to take over when Festus Mogae, who scored a landslide victory in 2004, steps down in 2009.

The concept of "indigenous peoples" is not acknowledged and the constitution specifically mentions and gives special privileges and automatic membership of the House of Chiefs to the eight Setswana-speaking paramount chiefs, bypassing six other minor ethnic tribes as well as the San and the Nama. The minority groups are represented by only three members, regarded as sub-chiefs, who are elected to the House on a rotating basis for a four-year term.

The country boasts a vibrant civil society, with non-governmental organisations and pressure groups operating freely.

Media

The government has been hailed for generally respecting media freedom and diversity of opinion, as provided for in the constitution. Freedom of expression is respected and people have been able to publish almost anything, including criticism of the government.

A new law will allow the introduction of more commercial and community radio stations, bringing major changes to the broadcasting industry in 2007. The country has 14 newspapers, one of which is government-owned; the rest are independent.

Newspaper circulation is low and generally limited to urban areas, making radio an important medium. Like radio, TV is dominated by the state-owned broadcaster.

Economy

Botswana is a landlocked, mainly desert country that is prone to drought, but has become one of the few African countries to achieve middle-income status by exploiting its mineral wealth. At the time of independence in 1966, Botswana was one of the poorest countries in Africa, but for over 30 years since then, it has had one of the fastest growing economies in the world.

According to the UN's Human Development Report 2006, Botswana's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita had reached US$9,945 by 2004. High growth rates have been attributed to an abundance of diamonds, wise use of the revenue generated by the industry to fuel development, and the government's prudent economic management policies. Copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore and silver are also produced.

With diamonds accounting for 70 percent of annual export earnings and more than one-third of GDP, the country's economy is heavily dependent on a single commodity. Persistent efforts to diversify are bearing fruit to varying degrees of success: manufacturing and construction, and the financial and service sectors have experienced significant growth; safari-based tourism is another major economic activity.

Beef exports to Europe represent Botswana's second largest income generator, and the booming tourism industry, currently third, may soon overtake the beef industry as the nation seeks to diversify its economy.

Population

The Batswana make up the largest group and most of the population speaks Setswana. Although sparsely populated, the majority of its 1.8 million people now live in towns and cities. In 1975 only 12 percent of the population lived in urban areas, but the scales tipped in 2000 and by 2004 over 56 percent were estimated to be living in urban settings, according to the UN Human Development Report 2006. This figure is expected to top 64 percent by 2015.

In the 1990s annual population growth declined to 2.4 percent, compared to 3.5 percent during the 1980s. According to the UN Development Report 2006, the population will shrink to an estimated 1.7 million by 2015. The decline is attributed to lower fertility rates from more effective family planning, and the continued spread of HIV/AIDS. Migration into Botswana, for example from neighbouring Zimbabwe, has slowed the decline.

The population of the ethnic minority – the San is approximately 55,000.

Development indicators

Botswana is ranked at 131 out of 177 in the UNDP Human Development Index. Sound economic policies and diamond revenue have catapulted it from being one of the poorest countries in the world in the 1960s to the status of a stable middle-income country today. Up to 95 percent of the population has access to clean drinking water.

Impressive development gains have also been made, with significant improvement in most social and economic indicators since independence, but a highly uneven distribution of income has become increasingly evident. According to the UN Human Development Report 2006, over 50 percent of the population still lives on less than US$2 a day.

HIV/AIDS has had a devastating effect and, at 24.1 percent, Botswana has the second highest prevalence rate in the world. The average person has an almost 70 percent chance of not passing the age of 40, according to UN figures.

Meanwhile, the government's Remote Area Dwellers initiative has provided roads, potable water, primary schools, hostels and health posts in San areas, while the Economic Promotion Fund supports income-generation and training projects, but rural poverty is endemic and the San remain the poorest of the poor.

Education

Great strides have been made in education: in the 1960s a very small percentage of the population attended secondary school, but by 1990 the adult literacy rate had climbed to 68.1 percent and reached 81.2 percent in 2004, according to UN figures. Although primary school education is not compulsory, enrolment remains high - 91 percent of children starting grade one reach grade five.

Nonetheless, the quantitative gains have not always been matched by quality: there are still vast discrepancies in the quality of education provided in Botswana's two-tier education system of public and private schools. Government schools are characterised by overcrowding, a poor resource base, and poorly paid, overworked teachers. The recent introduction of secondary education fees may further hinder those already marginalised from accessing further education.

The government of Botswana provides free education, and, through the Remote Area Dwellers initiative, primary schools and hostels have been built in San areas, but teaching is done in Tswana and English, which many San children do not speak.

Children

According to the UN Human Development Report 2006, the infant mortality rate dropped from 99 children per 1,000 live births in 1970 to 84, while under-five mortality decreased from 142 for every 1,000 live births to 116.

HIV/AIDS poses the greatest threat to children. Around 14,000 children under 15 are HIV-positive, but very few are receiving antiretroviral therapy, according to the UN's Children Fund (UNICEF). The epidemic has already orphaned over 120,000 children, and the high prevalence among women of childbearing age is raising the risk that mothers will transmit the virus to their babies.

Health

Life expectancy in Botswana was 56.1 years between 1970 and 1975, rising to 65 years in 1990, but dropped significantly between 2000 and 2005 to 36.6 years as a consequence of the HIV/AIDS epidemic and is now estimated at 34.9 years. Despite major strides in terms of health care delivery, HIV/AIDS has had a devastating impact. Botswana has a comprehensive HIV/AIDS care and treatment programme and was the first African country to provide antiretroviral therapy to all its needy citizens.

The health sector has been heavily affected by the exodus of nurses, doctors and other specialists to developed countries. The ratio of nurses to patients decreased from 27.1 per 10,000 people in 1998, to 26.1 per 10,000 in 2003. According to UN figures, there are only 40 physicians for every 100,000 people.

Between 1998 and 2003 the number of clinics increased minimally from 225 to 257, the number of health posts grew from 323 in 1998 to 336 in 2003, while mobile clinics increased from 740 to 761. The ratio of doctors to patients rose from 2.7 per 10,000 people to 3.1 per 10,000 people in the same period. The country has 16 hospitals.

Through its longstanding Remote Area Dwellers initiative, the government has provided roads, potable water and health posts in San areas.

HIV/AIDS

Botswana's most serious threat, not only to health but also to its development gains, is HIV/AIDS. With a 24.1 percent prevalence rate, according to UNAIDS, Botswana ranks second in the world behind Swaziland; among the 15-49 age group the rate doubles to 38.5 percent. An estimated 120,000 children have lost at least one parent to the epidemic.

The coping capacities of extended families and communities caring for those affected are already overstretched, while the country's workforce is being depleted as a growing number of adults develop AIDS. The education system is threatened as teachers fall ill and children drop out to help contribute to family income or stay home to take care of sick family members. Keeping girls at school is becoming a significant problem.

The Botswana government and its development partners have been commended for their efforts in response to the epidemic. The country has taken the lead in rolling out life-prolonging antiretroviral (ARV) treatment to an estimated 69,000 people.

Food security

As a net importer of food in a notoriously food-insecure region, Botswana faces challenges in securing sufficient food for its people. The country is arid, receiving an average of 500ml of rainfall per annum, and agriculture struggles to maintain adequate crop yields. Crops were destroyed by excessive rain in early 2006.

Agricultural production has declined since independence because the government has focused its economic policies primarily on diamond exploitation, but a master plan for the revival of the dairy and arable crop farming sectors has been produced in a bid to become more self-sufficient.

The government provides poverty relief and food aid packages to the needy, mostly the rural poor.

Gender issues

Botswana has a good record of commitment to principles and policies regarding the elimination of discrimination against women, and has made great strides in balancing gender roles.

Women hold leading positions in both government and private institutions, and many women serve in the police and other quasi-military agencies. Women activists have already celebrated the army's decision to recruit women into its ranks as the removal of the last barrier to gender equality in the country.

However, UNICEF has warned that while over 80 percent of children are in school, gender discrimination continues to undermine efforts to ensure education for all, and violence against women and girls remains widespread.

Keeping girls at school is a significant challenge to the school system. Girls are frequently left to shoulder the burden of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which has increased household responsibilities for girls, depriving them of the opportunity to attend classes and pursue higher education.

Human rights

Although Botswana has a generally good human rights record, its image has been battered by the ongoing saga of the forced removal of San populations from the Central Kgalagadi Game Reserve. Local and international human rights groups have accused the government of violating the rights of the San, saying they are being relocated to make way for diamond mining.

The government has maintained that it is moving the San people from remote locations to areas where they can access mainstream national development programmes.

In December 2006 the High Court of Botswana ruled that the San had been wrongfully evicted. The landmark judgment, which said the government had acted "unconstitutionally" and "unlawfully", was hailed as a model for other legal challenges being mounted by indigenous communities removed from their ancestral land in other countries.

Botswana's record has also been tainted by criticism on other human rights issues, such as maintaining the death penalty.

Humanitarian needs

Food security remains a major problem, there are increasing calls for the country to address the needs of the disabled and its growing orphan population, and to ensure access to education for all.

 CREDIT : IRIN – UN Office – Humanitarian Country Profile